Chapter One INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
1.1.1 The shortage of men in the sector
One of the main concerns of teacher policy is that there are long-term trends of fewer males in the composition of the teaching workforce (OECD, 2005). An international concern with the shortage of men in the teaching workforce has been paid great attention in numerous countries such as Germany, Finland, Australia, United Kingdom, and South Africa (Basten, 1997; Bhana & Moosa, 2016; De Salis et al., 2019; Farquhar, 1998; Johnson 2008; Lahelma, 2000; McGrath & Van Bergen, 2017; McGrath & Sinclair, 2013; Mills et al., 2004; Mistry & Sood, 2015; Riddell & Tett, 2010; Skelton, 2009, 2012; Sumsion, 2005). In particular, the paucity of men in preschool and primary school teaching is certainly not a new phenomenon and has been a serious problem despite a century or more of various educational reforms. According to Rolfe (2006), men are a small minority of teachers in the early years’ education sector and the scarcity of men can be seen as an issue for government plans for workforce expansion to meet parental employment and child education objectives, as an issue for equal opportunities and diversity of gender, and as an issue for the teaching quality for children. Also, it was stated that there was a critical lack of male teachers moving into primary education and this ongoing paucity was rarely ever viewed as problematic (Davis & Hay, 2018).
The OECD data reported in Table 1-1 shows the proportions of male primary school teachers, changes in those proportions, and the corresponding rankings from thirty-two countries between 2010 and 2017. As can be seen in Table 1-1, the proportion of male teachers increased in nine countries (28.13%) and decreased in twenty-three countries (71.88%) for seven years. In 2017, the highest percentage was recorded in India at 48.79%, while the lowest percentage in Hungary at only 3.46%. And twelve countries exceeded the international mean, 18.34%, and the remaining twenty countries had percentages below that value in 2017. Since the proportions of male primary school teachers decreased by more than 70% of countries, the international mean also fell from 19.10% in 2010 to 18.34% in 2017. Table 1-1 also indicated that during seven years Turkey, where the decrement was 9.09%, suffered the largest decline, and Slovenia where the increment was 9.50% grew to the highest.
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1.2 Problem Statement
As can be seen in Table 1-1, China had the percentage of male teachers in the primary teaching workforce as 42.25% and ranked third out of thirty-two countries in 2010, while it was respectively recorded in the percentage of primary male teachers of this workforce and the corresponding ranking as 34.48% and fourth place in 2017. This implicates that China has still kept up a great male proportion in the primary teaching workforce and has been in the leading position throughout the world. However, in terms of the declining percentage in China over seven years, that value was 8.07% and China took the thirty-first place among thirty-two countries (see Table 1-1). From this fact it can be easily known that China has also led the world in the decrement of the male proportion of the primary teaching workforce. And it is clear that if this continues in the future, most of the primary male teachers will have disappeared by 2047.
The fact that the number of men in the primary teaching profession was a minority in China has aroused many researcher’s concerns. According to the Educational Statistics Yearbook of China 2017, Table 1-2 shows the percentages of males, females, and the male to female ratio in the primary teaching workforce of China by type in 2017. Compared with the male-female ratio in the population of China, 104.92% in 2017, the ratios are very low, as shown in Table 1-2.
Many research works have been done on fewer male participation in the early education of China, where the male-female ratio has been very low, concerned with the perceptions to male teachers’ role in educating young children, the gender effect on the employment of men, the motivations and experiences of male teachers in kindergartens, etc (Chen, 2015; Dai, 2020; Gai, 2011; Ho & Lam, 2014; Huang & Ding 2017; Jing, 2016; Liu, 2006; Xu & Waniganayake, 2018; Yang & McNair, 2019; Yin & Qiu, 2013; Zhang, 2012; Zhang & Wang, 2018). Analyzing the effects of male preschool teachers during children’s growth, Gai (2011) indicated that they had a natural physical quality, an open and active thinking, a creative character, special gender roles and awareness to have a positive and irreplaceable influence on the development of children.
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Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Definition of Key Terms
2.1.1 Teacher labor market
A labor market is a market where people provide their employers with skills in exchange for wages, salaries, and other forms of remuneration. In other words, the labor market refers to the supply-demand relationship of labor, in which the supply is offered by employees and the demand is provided by employers (Kenton, 2020). Participants in the labor market include any person who is seeking to work for compensation and any person or organization that is looking for people to perform labor. The labor market is generally viewed at both the macroeconomic and microeconomic levels and there is a different market for every different type of labor (OpenStax, 2018).
The teacher labor market is also a kind of labor market dealing with the supply of and demand for teachers, and its concept is used by educational economists to describe and explain the processes which match individuals to teacher jobs in society (Santiago, 2004). Ву the anаlуѕis of the tеасher lаbor mаrkеt, the dеtеrminantѕ of the number of tеасherѕ rеquirеd, as wеll as the fасtorѕ that influеnсе the individuаl’ѕ willingnеѕѕ to рrерare for, еntеr, and ѕtау in or rеturn to teaching thrоughоut their working livеѕ, are ѕtudiеd (Vеgas, 2007).
While the teacher labor market is distinct from other labor markets in several aspects, the most important distinction is that the teacher labor market is not perfectly competitive. This can be mainly explained by the dominant position of the government in the education sector as a provider and regulator (Santiago, 2004).
As the government is an almost exclusive provider of education and buyer of teacher services, the supply and demand for teachers in most countries are controlled by public sectors. Moreover, the government establishes bargaining laws, compensation mechanisms, recruitment and selection processes to regulate the functioning of the teacher labor market and runs the public education system. These roles of the government make a considerable contribution to reducing market competition in the teacher labor market.
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2.2 Studies Related to the Decline of Male Primary school teachers
2.2.1 Several perceptions on men’s fewer participation in primary schools
The MFPTR in the education system depends on how many men are in the primary teaching profession. And obviously, when there are more male teachers, this ratio will be larger, while fewer male teachers provide a smaller ratio. Concerned with this matter, many research works have studied the international decline of the male proportion in the primary teaching workforce from different perspectives.
To investigate how to include more males into the teacher job, Stroud et al. (2000) identified the factors affecting the men’s choice to choose a career of teaching and the attitudes and expectations of male students majoring in education toward their faced job. According to their findings, the most important factor for pre-service education majors is the impact of professional educators such as counselors, principals, teachers, etc. Exploring the perceptions and thoughts of male students, Anliak & Beyazkurk (2008) identified the negative responses of five main categories: attitudes towards male teacher identity; the advantages and disadvantages of being a male teacher; the future positions of male teachers and their future plans related to their job. To analyze the paucity of male inclusion in teaching, Ponte (2012) discussed the factors that can affect men to choose teaching as a job and proposed the possibility of regarding the males’ participation in teaching. His interview analysis for male teachers and teacher candidates found that the most prominent aspect to drive the males into teaching was their desire to give promotion to social justice and to contribute to their community.
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Chapter Three DATA AND METHOD......................................38
3.1 Data .................................39
3.1.1 China Labor Statistical Yearbooks .......................................40
3.1.2 Chinese General Social Survey ......................................41
Chapter Four RESULTS ...........................................5
4.1 Results for Part 1: The MFPTR Changes over the Past Three Decades.............58
4.2 Results for Part 2: The Primary Teaching Earning Penalty ................................61
4.3 Results for Part 3: The Primary School Teacher Occupational Choice and Opportunity Earnings .........................73
Chapter Five DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION..............................85
5.1 Discussion .................................85
5.1.1 Main findings and discussion for Part 1 ..............................86
5.1.2 Main findings and discussion for Part 2 ......................................87
Chapter Four RESULTS
4.1 Results for Part 1:The MFPTR Changes over the Past Three Decades
The main objective of this section is to determine whether the MFPTR in different regions and nationwide in China has changed over the past three decades. No existing research has discussed this topic. Therefore, to rigorously answer this research question, I employ a linear regression model about how the MFPTR has changed across years in three economic regions and nationwide in China. Effectively, this analysis helps know whether the MFPTR has linearly increased or decreased and to what extent the MFPTR has been changed over the years.
According to Section 3.2, the MFPTRs are calculated in three economic regions and nationwide of China from 1988 to 2018 excluding 1991 by using the total number of primary school teachers with the number of females in that group collected from China Labor Statistical Yearbooks.
In Table 4-5, detailed information on descriptive statistics is introduced, for three economic regions and nationwide. Thirty years of the MFPTR data are used in all the cases. The MFPTRs have the mean ratio 1.03 (SD = 0.26) with a range (0.58 - 1.52) in nationwide, the mean ratio 0.85 (SD = 0.23) with a range (0.47 - 1.31) in the eastern region, the mean ratio 1.07 (SD = 0.24) with a range (0.62 - 1.50) in the intermediate region, and the mean ratio 1.25 (SD = 0.33) with a range (0.68 - 1.82) in the western region.
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Chapter Five DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Discussion
The fast development of the Chinese economy over the last decades has produced tremendous job opportunities and has greatly enhanced the overall well-being of the people. But, taking these rapid changes in the job market into consideration, the present study raises some issues that withholding teachers’ salaries at a wider market level could potentially have a major negative impact; the quality of the education system comes from the quality of teachers.
In particular, . Concerned with this matter, teacher occupational choice theory helps to understand what factors influence the individuals’ career decision to be engaged in primary schools. In this study, using a four-part analytic approach, I confirm empirical observations on the decline in male’s participation in the primary teaching workforce over the past three decades, contextualize theoretical stipulations of the broader occupational choice framework at the micro-level using the case of primary school teachers, and explain the changes in the male to female teacher ratio in primary schools in China by employing macro-level data.
At the outset of the analysis, I observe important income trends in the labor market at the aggregate level via actual average annual income and relative average annual income. The rate of primary school teachers’ actual and relative average annual earnings growth varies substantially across regions. However, investigating a common trend of them, in nationwide and all three economic regions, actual average annual incomes of workers in primary education have increased at a lower rate of growth compared to those in other education sectors, but have shown a higher growth rate than those in the overall sector. Considering this through relative income, in nationwide and all three economic regions, relative average annual incomes of workers in primary education compared to secondary education and tertiary education have decreased, while average annual incomes of primary school teachers relative to workers in the overall sector have increased. The exception to this is that only in the western region, average incomes of primary school teachers have grown more rapidly than secondary school teachers during the same period.
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